In a country where there are so many people in the beading business she separated herself from the pack by making high-end products with special gems. And for inspiration she started looking at design websites. “I knew I had to be different from every other beaded jewellery designer so I went online,” she told the BBC Africa’s Victor Okhai. Now Mrs Balogun runs two outlets in Lagos, has a weekly television show about jewellery and trains other beaders.

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Abimbola Balogun: “If I look back, I would say I am humbled.” Six years ago Nigeria’s Abimbola Balogun – affectionately called Bimbo – was a frustrated graduate, trained in petroleum marketing but coming to the sad realisation that it was going to be very difficult for her to get a job in the oil industry. So at 29 she went out on a bead stringing course. She says that she just wanted something that kept her busy until “the real thing came” and she found a proper job.

“Now the beading has overshadowed the real thing,” Mrs Balogun told the BBC series African Dream. And she exploded with laughter. She has, indeed, many reasons to be happy. “I knew I had to be different from every other beaded jewellery designer so I went online.” She started her business with an investment of just 400 naira ($2.5, £1.6) which bought her enough beads to make two necklaces. She sold them for 5,000 naira – more than 1,100% profit – reinvested the money and never looked back.

In a country where there are so many people in the beading business she separated herself from the pack by making high-end products with special gems. And for inspiration she started looking at design websites. “I knew I had to be different from every other beaded jewellery designer so I went online,” she told the BBC Africa’s Victor Okhai. Now Mrs Balogun runs two outlets in Lagos, has a weekly television show about jewellery and trains other beaders. Her company, Bimbeads Concept, is now worth around five million naira and has five employees.

Pride in African colours

Mrs Balogun is aware that in Nigeria, like in many other parts of Africa, women are becoming increasingly proud of their local cultures.

Abimbola Balogun

• Age: 35
• Higher National Diploma (HND) of the Petroleum Training Institute (PTI), Nigeria
• Started Bimbeads in 2006
• Her company has five full time employees
• Vice-president of Beaded Jewelry Designers Association of Nigeria
• Studied Entrepreneurial Management at the Lagos Business School

Good quality colourful beads – including precious and semi-precious stones – that match their outfit are preferred by many of them to expensive gold or pearls. To a great extent that is probably why her range has had such an appeal. “My designs are different because they are customised… They are designs that are uniquely and individually crafted,” the entrepreneur explained. She says that she knew very little when she started out but has learnt everything on the job. She has also continued studying. After starting her business, she got a scholarship from the Goldman Sachs 10,000 Woman Initiative to study Entrepreneurial Management at the Lagos Business School.

Mrs Balogun also talks about the importance of networking and of women working together to achieve success. She speaks at mentoring and motivational events and is a member of a number of organisations, including the Nigeria Network of Entrepreneurial Women (NNEW), a platform of Nigeria Employers’ Consultative Association (NECA). “I started by calling myself a mobile trainer. So I was going from one house to the other, training people and earning some money but when I joined NNEW I was advised to take the bold step to get an outlet which I did,” she said. “Of course, I was scared. I had the fear of failing but the passion kept me going.”

High-profile clients

She later moved to a bigger place and opened a second outlet, also in Lagos.

According to Mrs Balogun, her designs are “uniquely and individually crafted”

“My products cut across all classes of people: Lower, medium and the upper upper class,” Mrs Balogun said. According to her, she has some very high-profile clients, including wives of governors and kings, and women in politics. Mrs Balogun added that her weekly slot in the TV programme Every Woman’s World has also helped to increase her clientele. “That actually was one of the things that made me popular,” she explained. She said that the major problem she has encountered is that in Nigeria “everybody wants to reckon with the successful, nobody wants to give the growing ones a chance. If your name is not there, if you’re not one of the first three top designers, then you’re nowhere.

“With consistency, passion and hard work I was able to overcome all of that,” she said. Now her dream is to add – like precious beads to a necklace – new outlets to her company and expand across Nigeria and West Africa.  African Dream is broadcast on the BBC Network Africa programme every Monday morning, and on BBC World News throughout the day on Fridays.

Culled from BBC. Read more on this story at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world/Africa  

By Dr. Sakui W. G. Malakpa

Malakpa, Sakui W. G. Prof. (2005). Turning brain drain into brain gain. Liberian Studies Journal, XXX (2), 29-39.

It has been postulated that a major impediment to Africa’s socio-economic development is the incessant flow of skilled human resources from the continent to the developed world (Nyikuli, 1999; Kigotho, 2002; Mutume, 2003).  The contention is that this flow (referred to as the “brain drain”) depletes Africa of intellectuals/scholars, medical and health personnel, engineers, scientists, etc., who are needed to contribute to the development of the continent (Devan, & Tewari, 2001; Kigotho, 2002; Mutume, 2003).  Some observers attribute this “drain” to several factors.  For instance, it is alleged that the African intelligentsia are greedy gravy seekers who turn their backs on the countries that educated them although such countries need them (Shikwati, 2000; Malakpa, 2005). Other observers charge that brains flow out of Africa because developed countries are insensitive, callous, and rapacious in their bid to enhance their development further irrespective of how draining hurts the developing world. For example, some have accused Britain of poaching intellectuals and health workers from Africa. Still, other observers argue that sometimes (if not often), brains are not “drained” but “driven” by the developing world (Nyikuli, 1999; Shikwati, 2000; Tebeje, 2005; Malakpa, 2005). Whether Africa’s skilled human resources are “drained” by the developed world or “driven” by African countries, the truth remains that the departure of skilled human resources negatively affects socio-economic development in Africa (Nyikuli, 1999; Devan & Tewari, 2001). Based on this realization, it is necessary to discuss the extent of the brain drain problem and briefly touch on its causes. Furthermore, this work will cover the Liberian situation, first arguing that the “drain” is not a total loss.  Additionally, this work will show howLiberiacan benefit from strategies and approaches employed in other places to turn the brain drain into a brain gain.

Magnitude of the Problem: Kigotho (2002) accentuates that the departure of skilled professionals from sub-Saharan Africa poses a serious concern because the loss of such persons to the developed world is a major threat to the region’s economic development. When this topic was discussed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in South Africa, it was disclosed that in less than twenty years, sub-Saharan Africa “lost a third of its skilled professionals and had to replace them with over 100,000 expatriates from the West at a cost of US$4 billion a year” (Kigotho, 2002, p1; Mutume, 2003). It was further disclosed that “between 1985 and 1990 Africa lost over 60,000 middle-level and high-level managers to Western economies. In addition, about 23,000 lecturers from African universities emigrate each year. The biggest migratory flows are from Egypt, South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana in that order” (Kigotho 2002, p2). The flow of skilled professionals from Africa affects every sector of development. However, “The UN Development Programme (UNDP) notes that in Africa, the loss of medical doctors has been the most striking” (Mutume, 2003, p1). Along this line, Pang, Lansang, & Haines (2002) generally point out that “migration of medical professionals from developing countries has become a major concern. This brain drain worsens the already depleted healthcare resources in poor countries and widens the gap in health inequities worldwide” (p1).

As a result there is blood flow into the penile region gets hampered. buy levitra viagra Male enhancement supplement can only improve your sex life and satisfies your partner but no thrusting, and the last stage is now the djpaulkom.tv purchase generic viagra thrusting. More importantly, whether, you are buying generic meds from a web chemist then it has a natural gift also with cheapest viagra tablets it. Key ingredients in Night Fire capsules are the best herbal remedies for sexual weakness in men are past sexual trauma, tiredness, anxiety, cheapest tadalafil online stress, negative feelings, fear and depression. The constant flow of medical doctors and health personnel out of Africa is illustrated by the finding that, although health and medical needs are humongous in Africa, a third to one-half of graduates from South African medical schools emigrate to the developed world (Pan, Lansang, & Haines, 2002). Canada offers attractive salaries and benefits in a bid to hire a large number of these doctors. Consequently, South Africa strongly appealed to the government of Canada to desist from recruiting its medical professionals. South Africa’s concern and subsequent appeal were justified because, in Canada’s rural province of Saskatchewan alone, “more than 50 per cent of doctors are foreign trained and at least 1 in 5 of the 1,530 doctors there earned their first medical degree in South Africa“(Mutume, 2003, p5). In West Africa, “at least 60 per cent of doctors trained in Ghana during the 1980s have left the country” (Mutume, 2003, p1). In like manner, there are 22,000 Nigerian medical doctors in the US alone (UNCDF, 2005). The flight of health and medical personnel out of Africa is not limited to doctors alone.  This is exemplified by the finding that 18000 Zimbabwean nurses seek employment abroad (Pan et al, 2002). In education, African schools continue to lose qualified teachers to the developed world(www.news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1173620.stm, 2001). However, this problem is not limited to primary and secondary schools.  At the tertiary level, university professors, skilled researchers, and qualified staff members incessantly stream out of Africa for positions abroad (Shikwati, 2000; Nyikuli, Akpotu & Nwadiani, 2002). Likewise, in social work, the Zimbabwe National Association of Social Workers estimates that “1,500 of the country’s 3,000 trained social workers left for the UK during the last 10 years” (Mutume, 2003, p5).

Reasons for the Continuous Flight of Human Capital: Although brain drain is a major impediment to socio-economic development in Africa, this flow of skilled human resources continues because of a number of factors. For instance, as pointed out earlier, it is alleged that the African intelligentsia and skilled individuals leave the continent (as greedy gravy seekers) in search of greener pastures abroad (Kigotho, 2002; Malakpa, 2005). Other fingers point to governments of the developed world who poach developing countries of their skilled human resources.  However, overwhelmingly, the literature attributes the success of brain drain to problems and poor conditions in developing countries. For example, it is contended that, “limited job opportunities and education facilities, a lower standard of living and security, and lack of professional recognition are among the factors that have caused many African workers, especially those with professional skills, to seek work outside the continent” (Nyikuli, 1999, p1). Referring to the departure of medical and health workers fromAfrica, Pang, Lansang, and Haines (2002) cite key causes such as “poor remuneration, bad working conditions, an oppressive political climate, persecution of intellectuals, and discrimination. Researchers cite lack of funding, poor facilities, limited career structures, and poor intellectual stimulation” (p499).  Other personal reasons for skilled personnel emigrating fromAfricainclude “security, the threat of violence, and the wish to provide a good education for their children” (Pang et al, 2002, p.499).

While personal reasons for the flight of skilled human capital from Africa are always a consideration, such reasons seem to be outweighed by the fear, threat, or possibility of political persecution. For example, Amnesty International, a highly respected human rights organization, presents a 2001 annual report covering North Africa and the Middle-East to show that, gross human right violations took place throughout much of the Middle East and North Africa. They ranged from extrajudicial executions to widespread use of torture and unfair trials, harassment and intimidation of human rights defenders. Freedom of expression and association continued to be curtailed; the climate of impunity remained and the victims were still awaiting steps to bring those responsible for past human rights violations to justice (Amnesty International Report, 2001, p2). The Amnesty International Report (2001) cites specific country examples from North Africa which are not much different (if at all) from other parts of Africa. In Algeria, the security forces enjoy impunity in the midst of violence and disappearances. Yet, no independent and impartial investigations are carried out to ensure that perpetrators are brought to justice.  In Egypt, torturing occurs in police stations with people dying in prison under mysterious circumstances. Thousands of people are imprisoned under conditions which are tantamount to “cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment” (Amnesty International Report, 2001, p3). At the same time, human right defenders are targeted; they are harassed and legally restricted (Amnesty International Report).

The targeting of human right defenders has escalated in Tunisia where at least a thousand political prisoners (most of them prisoners of conscience) languish behind bars. Likewise, in Libya, hundreds of political prisoners are behind bars without charges or trials, and political prisoners are routinely tortured. In Morocco, there are arbitrary arrests and disappearances and yet, perpetrators are not brought to trial. There is constant violation of freedom of expression and consequent imprisonment of prisoners of conscience (Amnesty International Report, 2001).

(This was published in the Liberian Studies journal as follows: Prof. Malakpa, Sakui W. G. (2009). Toward quality education in Liberia. The Liberian Studies Journal, XXXIII  (1), 23-31.

TOWARD QUALITY EDUCATION IN LIBERIA

Scholars and disciplines view education from different perspectives.  Economics of education views education as a form of investment in human beings. Education therefore is regarded as capable of yielding economic benefits and contributing to a nation’s future wealth by increasing the productive capacity of its people (Bonal, 2007; Patrinos, 2000; Psacharopoulos, 1993). On the other hand, humanists and existentialists see education as the development of the whole being and the advancement of his or her environment and culture (Malakpa, 1996; Schilling, 1986).

Advocates of holistic education postulate that education transcends the confines of subject knowledge accumulation and emphasizes “mastering the instruments of learning and the application of knowledge in a variety of contexts” (UNESCO, 1996 p. 86). Furthermore, holistic education views this field as a process of “learning and understanding, developing personal competences, learning to live with others and the education of the whole person. For example, “education must contribute to the all-round development of each individual-mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, esthetic sense, personal responsibility and spiritual values” (UNESCO, 1996, p. 94). Holistic education also sees the field of education in terms of life-long learning in a constantly changing world which requires new and varied expertise. From this perspective,

It is not enough to supply each child early in life with a store of knowledge to be drawn on from then on. Each individual must be equipped to seize learning opportunities throughout life, both to broaden her or his knowledge, skills and attitudes, and to adapt to a changing, complex and interdependent world. (UNESCO, 1996, p. 85). However defined, the truth is that from the left, right and center, the importance and contributive value of education cannot be overemphasized.

This work therefore focuses on the importance of increasing quality education in Liberia.  The purpose of this endeavor is not to criticize but offer views and examples of quality education in sister developing (especially sub-Saharan African) countries.  It is hoped that this discourse will add to the directions and suggestions for increasing quality education in Liberia.

Quality: Materu (2007), looking at quality of higher education in sub-Saharan Africa defines quality as “fitness for purpose; that is, meeting or conforming to generally accepted standards as defined by an institution, quality assurance bodies and/or appropriate academic and professional communities” (p. 3). Using South Africa as a prime example, Motala (2001) explores the literature for the definition of quality as related to primary and secondary education in Africa. Fuller (1986) (cited in Motala, 2001) stresses that definitions of quality emanate from four views of schooling: “a production function model with an input-output view; school quality as existing in the relationships between teacher and student, supported by a positive school climate; school quality as a function of classroom and school organisation (time on task and a well-managed school structure); and quality as symbolic” (p. 67).

Adams(1993) argues that quality is popularly understood as something exceptional, as effectiveness or fitness for purpose, as providing value for money, or as transformative or empowering—adding value). Likewise, Webbstock (1994) notes that any conception of quality in education must be relevant to its changing context, and that a workable notion should include “fitness of purpose” and “value-added” approaches. She describes these as entailing “assessing fitness for a defined purpose as well as assessing, through performance indicators and participants’ perceptions,” the extent to which value has been added  (p. 7).

In stressing the notion of quality as empowering or transforming, Kissack and Meyer (cited in Motala, 2001) advance the concept of “empowering agency” which they envisage as having two dimensions: (A) cre­ating epistemological access, and (B) developing the capability of all education role players to exer­cise judgment (p. 68). Increased Quality Education in Liberia: Given the definitions of education and quality, this work offers suggestions for increasing quality education in Liberia. In addition to the inputs of Malakpa (1988-89; 1990; 2005; 2006), suggestions are based on examples from sister sub-Saharan African countries. It is hoped that where these elements already exist in Liberia, they will be strengthened and where they are wanting, they will be considered.

For years, Malakpa (1988-89; 1990) has written and spoken about the elusive trio in quality education in Liberia. He cites the trio as: (A) skilled, insightful, and realistic planning implementation of education in Liberia, (B) accurate and inclusive history of Liberia, and (C) ensuring that the curriculum includes Liberian languages and reflects invaluable values of Liberian culture (Malakpa, 1990).  In addition, Malakpa (2005; 2006) emphasizes incessantly that insisting on special education programs in Liberia will buttress the quality of education in the country. Such programs, inter alia, render the nation’s education system holistic.  Furthermore, like other areas of education, they yield quantifiable and unquantifiable private and public returns. It is therefore difficult to achieve quality education in Liberia without considering these factors.

Equally relevant to increasing quality education in Liberia are examples and experiences from other developing countries (especially sister nations in sub-Saharan Africa). From a South African perspective, Motala (2001) maintains that, “conceptualization of quality must be guided by political and social transformation processes, local needs, and global influences — parti­cularly economic and educational influences” (p. 62).

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Also as advocated in South Africa, the quest for quality cannot be “used for purposes of exclusion, domination and political advantage.”  Rather, quality and access “must include learning, new forms of knowledge, and must lead to “cognitive equity” (Motala, 2001, p. 67). Of particular importance is that redistributing resources is not sufficient in itself; it must entail creating conditions for the equity of learning achievement (Crouch, 1996; Motala, 2001). Motala, (2001) adds other dimensions for achieving quality in education. These include fiscal discipline, and a strong reaction to inequitable and ineffective government policies, factors that must be considered in the Liberian context.

Crucial also to the enhancement of quality is a critical discussion and reexamination of performance indicators. What, for example, are the goals of education and what does the government regard as quality education? To what extent is a school system performing vis-à-vis the delineated standard of quality? How is this performance measured?

In addressing the foregoing questions in the South African context, it is said that “the stated goals which underlie the use of performance indicators … are equity, access, redress and quality. The use of the matriculation examination as the only indicator of school performance is being challenged” (Motala, 2001, p. 69). Rather, policy researchers and analysts propose a much less simplistic approach to the assessment of both student achievement and quality (Motala, 2001). It behooves Liberia to seek a similar path within the context of its socio-economic and socio-political reality. Similarly, like South Africa,Liberia Will do well to emphasize improvement of “education management capacity, particularly school-based management, to bring about quality, effectiveness and efficiency in the education sector” (Motala, 2001 p. 70).

Osei (2006) also discusses quality education but with reference to Ghana. He argues that, like many of its regional neighbors (and there’s reason to believe that Liberia is no exception),Ghana’s education is far from achieving quality. This is because Ghana allegedly emphasizes policies and practices antithetical to the maximization of quality education. For example, Osei (2006) charges that Ghana’s education depends on an “archaic, centrally controlled schooling system which does not have room for all willing post-primary students and which is orientated towards producing clerks and civil servants” (p. 41). Instead of such a trend, Ghana and Liberia, which have experienced different crises, need to restructure their educational systems to maximize quality and thereby prepare students to compete effectively in a global market.

Osei (2006) delineates other policies and practices that are antithetical to the promotion of quality education in Ghanaian schools. To cite a few, students are encouraged “to learn by rote and produce lists of facts in compulsory examinations, an approach which neither stimulates creativity nor provides better foundations in English, mathe­matics and computer skills, all of which are needed to develop a globally competitive economy” (Osei, 2006, p. 42).

Other possible reasons for low quality education in Ghana include: “the stagnant expenditure per pupil; a largely under-qualified teaching force; rivalry between local and central bureaucracies; insufficient monitoring of the system or feedback; and the lack of incentives for improvement” (Osei, 2006, p. 42). Hence, Asare-Bediako and Boachie-Danquah (1995) (cited in Osei, 2006) identify the main problem as: “inappropriately centralised quality control, bureaucratic profit-making and ill-defined educational objectives” (p. 42).Liberia faces similar problems and can increase quality of education by addressing these crucial issues.

Michaelowa & Wittmann (2008) contribute to the discourse by looking at quality of education in Francophone African countries. Based on experiences from these countries, it is emphasized that Quality in education is unreachable without addressing quality of teacher training, low teacher motivation, teacher remuneration, school environments, and student-teacher ratio (Michaelowa & Wittmann, 2008). In addition to teacher remuneration, the type and quality of teacher family surroundings have been found to contribute to the quality of education. This link was found in Zimbabwe(Chivore 1988), the Anglophone part of Cameroon(Abangma, 1981),Sierra Leone(Banya and Elu, 1997) and in Tanzania,Zambia, and Uganda(Postlethwaite 1998).

In considering change in development education from the perspective of complexity theory, Mason (2009), stresses that quality must be inextricably related to equity. Put differently, achieving quality education must be synonymous to reducing (preferably eliminating) provision or exclusion of services on the basis of region, gender, disability, ethnicity, etc. A quest for quality education in Liberia must emphasize this point because of the finding that “inequalities in education in any society lie primarily … in inequities that can probably be traced back to the big four: socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, gender, and space/region” (Mason, 2009, p. 119).

In the quest for quality education,Liberia also can benefit from a broad perspective relative to sub-Saharan Africa. For example, Heneveld (1994) argues that as nations in sub-Saharan Africa plan and monitor quality education, they must revise current assumptions that inform methods of policy and planning. To this end, nations in the region must realize that school-level factors are intertwined with, and not independent of, national policies. Hence, national policies must be woven in a fabric that comes together with school-level factors to form a social system which strongly impacts the learning that occurs in schools (Heneveld, 1994). An important feature of the research phase of this process is ensuring that work on quality is indigenized with emphasis on local writers, researchers, etc.. (Motala, 2001).

Summary and Conclusion: In advocating quality education in Liberia, it need be realized that scholars and disciplines view education differently.  Likewise, “quality” is defined from different perspectives. However defined, quality education is a must for Liberia. To realize increased quality education in Liberia, this work advances suggestions from several perspectives. Malakpa (1988-89; 1990; 2005; 2006) stresses the importance of addressing what he terms “the elusive trio in quality education in Liberia.” He also accentuates the inclusion of special education services and programs in schools.

Similarly, suggestions are offered from the experiences and perspectives of sister sub-Saharan African countries. The South African experience shows that quality cannot be reached with policies of exclusion and domination; rather both the education system and national educational policies must embrace and promote equity. Likewise, to achieve quality education, there must be fiscal discipline and strong reaction to ineffective government policies. Furthermore, the quest for quality education must include a critical examination of performance indicators (Motala, 2001).

From a Ghanaian viewpoint, quality education is unreachable in the face of an archaic centrally controlled system. Also, a national education system that encourages students to learn by rote does not contribute to the development of skills needed in a competitive global economy. Quality education equally will remain elusive when a nation has a large under-qualified teaching force and there are no incentives for improvement (Osei, 2006).

Experiences from Francophone African countries indicate that impediments to quality education include inadequate or ineffective teacher training programs, low teacher motivation, nugatory teacher remuneration, poor school environments, and disproportionate student-teacher ratio. It also was found that the type and quality of teacher family surroundings were strongly contributive to quality education (Michaelowa & Wittmann, 2008). In addition, a broad sub-Saharan African perspective emphasizes that, to achieve quality education in the region, national policies must be intertwined with school-level factors to promote learning (Heneveld, 1994). A crucial aspect of this process must be the indigenization of quality; that is, to promote quality, there must be strong emphasis on the use of local authors, materials, processes and methods.

In conclusion, it is axiomatic that no nation can develop at an acceptable pace, let alone a desirable pace without developing skilled human resources. The education sector therefore is a crucial partner in the socio-economic and socio-cultural development process as it is a vital means of developing human resources. Thus, if Liberia is to accelerate and buttress socio-economic development in the post-war era, and in the face of the ramifications of the war, more than ever, the nation must promote and enhance quality education. To achieve this goal,Liberia Must institute stringent policies and practices for the promotion of quality education.  For example, among others, heavy emphasis must be placed on teacher education, teacher remuneration, in-service education for practicing teachers, decentralization and indigenization of the education system, and reconsideration of performance assessment alongside criteria for rating schools and school districts throughout the country. Put succinctly, overall, the education sector in Liberia has contributed enormously to the nation. However, if this sector is to play its expected role effectively and efficiently, it must institute drastic changes to achieve its myriad goals and objectives.

 References

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Bonal, X. (2007). On global absences: Reflections on the failings in the education and poverty relationship in Latin America. International Journal of Educational Development, 27 (1), 86-100.

Malakpa, S. W. G. (1988-89). The elusive trio in quality education in Liberia.  Liberian Studies Journal, XII(2), 178-186. Malakpa, S. W. G. (1990). Myths, miseries and mysteries of educational planning in Liberia:  Basis for refutation.  The Liberia Forum, 5 (8), 63-69. Malakpa, S. W. G. (1994). The role of special education and rehabilitation in post-war resettlement and reconstruction.  Liberian Studies Journal, XIX(1), 1-11.

Malakpa, S. W.G. (1996). Toward cultural pluralism in education. Liberian Studies Journal, XXI(1), 50-71. Malakpa, S. W. G. (2005). Toward a disability legislation in Liberia. The Perspective.  http://www.theperspective.org/malakpa.html. Malakpa, S. W. G. (2006). Dollars and sense in special education and rehabilitation. The Perspective.http://www.theperspective.org/articles/1025200601.html

Mason, M. (2009). Making educational development and change sustainable: Insights from complexity theory. International Journal of Educational Development, 29, 117–124. Materu, P. (2007). Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa: Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices. Washington, DC: Africa region Human Development Department, The World Bank. Michaelowa, K. & Wittmann, E. (2008). The cost, satisfaction, and achievement of primary education—evidence from Francophone sub-Saharan Africa. The Journal of Developing Areas, 41 (1), 51-78. Motala, S. (2001). Quality and indicators of quality in South African education: A critical appraisal. International Journal of Educational Development, 21, 61–78.

Patrinos, H. A. (2000). Market forces in education. European Journal of Education, 35(1), 61-80. Psacharopoulos, G. (1993). Returns to investment in education: A global update (WPS 1067).Washington,DC: Office of the Director, Latin America and the Caribbean, The World Bank. Schilling, D. E. (1986).  Managing motivational needs of the gifted and talented.  G/C/T, 9 (3), 2-5. UNESCO (1996). ‘The four pillars of education’, in Learning: The treasure within: Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty First Century, pp. 85–97. Paris: Author. Webbstock, D., 1994. “Quality” in a changing South Africa. South African Agency for Academic Development News 2 (1), 00–00.

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