By Dr. Malakpa, Sakui W. G. Prof. (2008). Chronos and kairos: temporal concepts with implications for classroom instruction and national development. The Liberian Studies Journal, XXXII (1), 94-102
Time is a fundamental part of human existence. It directs people’s lives and punctuates their activities. As a consequential component of culture, time colors our language and speaks more loudly than words. Hence, it has been described as the most eloquent language of culture (Hall, 1959; 1977). This is evidenced by the many expressions of time and timing which permeate the English language: “Just a minute;” “Give me a second;” “Time is money;” (Grove, 1988). The societal emphasis on time extends to instruction in the classroom and ultimately to national development. This is because, throughout the literature, time is consistently associated with learning (Kohl, 1984; Evertson & Harris, 1992; Walberg, 1988). For instance, research finds a strong correlation between student achievement and the amount of time allocated for instruction (Prater, 1992; Wittrock, 1986). In like manner, it has been found that teachers’ proper management of time sharply increases learning (Myers, 1990). Consequently, administrators are encouraged to increase classroom scheduling to maximize teachers’ time management; in turn, this is expected to maximize instructional time and enhance students’ time on task (Reck, 1984).
Because of the impact time and timing have on learning, classroom time has been identified and classified in varied ways. Prater (1992) identifies “allocated time” as the amount of time scheduled for instruction while “time-on-task” is the amounts of time students spend attending to school related tasks. “Engaged learning time” refers to the time students spend attending to relevant instructional activities (Prater). Tikunoff and Vanquez-Farie (1982) identify “academic learning time” (ALT), as a combination of allocated time, the degree of student engagement and the rate of student accuracy. Similarly, Waxman (1989) regards “instructional time” as the time students spend learning. This includes “engaged time” – the time students spend participating in school work – and “allocated time”, the amount of time teachers designate for learning. On the other hand, “pacing” refers to the rapidity with which the teacher covers the material and the extent to which the material is at the appropriate level of difficulty (Collier, 1983).
The correlation between time management and student achievement underlies a variety of suggestions for proper classroom time management (Myers, 1990; Evertson & Harris, 1992). Inter alia, Slobojan (1984) suggests the use of a minute-by-minute observation chart to note the amount of time students and teachers spend on tasks. Dattilo (1991) refers to suggestions by elementary and secondary school teachers regarding the use of technology to reduce the amount of time teachers spend on routine tasks. Farrell (1989) prefers to reduce time spent on routine tasks by training students (even second graders) to perform clerical and other non-teaching jobs. Conversely, Darst (1993) maintains that teachers can improve their teaching efficiency through self evaluation of the amount of time they spend on instruction, practice and management. For instance, they can use duration recording techniques to measure the amount of time spent in each category. From another perspective, Cochran (1989) suggests that classroom time can be saved by assessing students without paper work to correct.
The importance and constant use of time in the classroom have been offered as an explanation for the poor school performance of poor children from inner city schools (Taylor, 1989). It is argued that because these children come from an “isolated timeless world”, they cannot cope with punctuality, the pacing of lessons, and the insistence on the completion of tasks within predetermined time limits (Taylor). Similarly, it is argued that people in developing countries have no sense of time (Marin, 1987). This work refutes such arguments and rather maintains that there are different temporal concepts (Malakpa, 1990). The problem therefore is not that children come from a timeless world or people do not have any sense of time; rather, the problem is the failure of teachers and school administrators to understand various time concepts. Because of this failure, instructional time is often misunderstood and misapplied and this has far-reaching implications for nation-building.
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While the importance of time is incontrovertible, it is nonetheless difficult to ascertain the true impact of classroom timing on learning since, as presently employed in the schools, time is often improperly utilized. To this end, it has been shown that there is a lack of concern for context in education; that is, regardless of what is taught, how, to whom and where, generally, scheduling takes priority over all other aspects of instruction (Collier, 1983; Hall, 1977). For example, while the use of short time frames may be very appropriate in some instances, in other cases, its use makes it difficult for a teacher to include a significant proportion of both context and content. It is further shown that too much instructional time is wasted in schools (Lowe & Gervais, 1988). The major “time wasters” include: 1. working on homework during school hours, 2. (especially in developed countries), excessive viewing of films, 3. changing and beginning classes, 4. registration, and 5. testing (Lowe & Gervais).
The number of “time wasters” partly explains the finding that only about 50% of allocated time is spent on instruction in the schools (Good, 1983; Prater, 1992). Moreover, within a school day, students spend 32-42% of the time on varied tasks and only 17% of the time is spent on relevant learning tasks (Houmeister & Lubke, 1990). In developing countries, there many other “time wasters.” To understand the impacts and implications of “time wasters, however, it is noted that although time is a universal concept, it is perceived, conceptualized and utilized differently. For example, in the United States, a future oriented society, time is perceived and used differently as destiny can be planned and gratification delayed (Marin, 1987). Time, therefore, is viewed as an object which metaphorically, can be saved, spent, sliced, framed or lost. Relentlessly, it marches on without waiting for any one (Sanders & Brizzolara, 1985).
As opposed to an American society, inLatin America, a present oriented society, time use is described by observers as inefficient as people are not punctual (Marin, 1987). Likewise, Arabs (especially Saudis) generally refuse to let their lives be structured and limited by the tyranny of a ticking clock. They therefore do not concern themselves with precisely defined time (Patai, 1983; Hall, 1983; Sanders and Brizzolara, 1985). In like manner, an ethnographic study of two Quechua speaking communities inPerufound very different uses of time (Honberger, 1987). To understand the conceptualization and use of time in different cultures, teachers of students in diverse cultural communities (including those in developing countries) need to understand the time concepts of chronos and kairos. Although borrowed from Greek philosophy, these time concepts are used either singly or in combination in every culture.
Chronos: As the root of words such as “chronometer” and “chronology”, chronos is clock time. As it ticks, chronos time aspires to measure duration as precisely as possible. The precision with which chronos time can be measured has improved over the centuries. The first scientists who attempted to measure time could only rely on the rotation of the earth on its axis. Later scientists used a variety of instruments, some comparable to modern gadgets and methods. For example, scientists used a sundial consisting of diurnal units from which time could be read out in subdivisions. This instrument is comparable to the photographic zenith tube, a modern equipment used to identify the orientation of the earth against the background of the fixed stars relative to the sun (Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 1987).
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